How important is output (speaking and writing) in second language learning? This page includes links to the Output Hypothesis and other readings and videos about speaking and writing.

Reading

An excellent 2018 review of literature about Michael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis by Shawn Loewen and Masatoshi Sato (Time: around 60 minutes)

An interesting paper from 2023 on the possible value of using tongue-twisters as a tool for teaching pronunciation (Time: 20 minutes)

A 2017 article entitled The Output Hypothesis: From Theory to Practice. Includes lesson ideas. (Time: 25 minutes)

Scott Thornbury explains Merrill Swain’s Output Hypothesis and suggests a few ways to generate “pushed output” (Time: 2 minutes)

Mary O’Brien (2021) reviews the evidence for the usefulness of pronunciation training (Time: 5 minutes)

How important is it to interact with input? In this research study Alison Mackey reviews the Output Hypothesis and Mike Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (Time: 12 minutes - up to the study)

Victor Birkner considers what research suggests about the balance between input and output when teaching a language (Time: 10 minutes)

A 1997 study by Roy Lyster and Leila Ranta about correcting students’ oral output in class (Time: 30 minutes)

Gianfranco Conti explores issues relating to the teaching of pronunciation in this referenced blog post (Time: 10 minutes)

Alasdair Archibald provides an overview of research issues relating to the teaching of writing, including the role of instruction and assessment (Time: 8 minutes)

An article about teaching the writing process in L1 and L2 (Time: 10 minutes)

This book chapter by Anne Burns examines in detail recent research about the process of speaking and what this might mean for teaching it (Time: 30 minutes)

Task repetition (within the framework of Task-Based Language Learning) has been found by researchers to increase the fluency, range and accuracy of learners’ second language production. This study by Mohammad Ahmadian suggested that intermediate learners with higher working memory capacity improved fluency and accuracy on repeating a task (Time: 15 minutes)

This study by Ewa Donesch-Jezo examines the role of pushed output, also known as forced output. Do learners acquire more when they are forced to use language in production? The article includes a useful summary of literature and the issue at stake. Her study found an advantage for pushed output (Time: 15 minutes)

A 2018 summary of research into second language writing by Azim Javadi-Safa, often thought to be the hardest skill (Time: 25 minutes)

A short, research-informed summary about inout and output by Prayag Patel, written in 2025 (Time: 5 minutes)

Video

Peggy Marcy describes three stages of teaching speaking (Time: 3m 41)

Jack C. Richards discusses the nature of second language writing as ways to teach it (Time: 13 minutes)

Rob McCollum looks at input, output and interaction (Time: 10 minutes)

Florencia Henshaw delivers a super webinar about the role of output, including analysis if particular lesson activities. Highly recommended. (Time: 1h 33)